Napoleons Reasons For Defeat Essays - Russia, French Emperors

Napoleon's Reasons For Defeat The Campaign of 1812 should have been a another crusade for Napoleon, but he now faced 2 new policies that he had never faced before, the severe Russian winter and the notorious scorched-earth policy. On June 23, 1812 Napoleon's Grande Armee, over 500,000 men strong, poured over the Russian border. An equal amount of Russian forces awaited them. The result of the campaign was a surprise. Two authors, General carl von Clausewitz and Brett James, show similarities in reasons why Napoleon had lost this campaign to Russia. Napoleon believed that after a few quick victorious battles, he could convince Alexander to return to the Continental System. He also decided that if he occupied Moscow, the Russian government would crumple and ask for peace. A single blow delivered at the heart of the Russian Empire, at Moscow the Great, at Moscow the Holy, will instantly put this whole blind, apathetic mass at my mercy. pg 6, 1812 Napoleon's Defeat in Russia This was his belief he expressed in March 1812. However, when Napoleon eventually took over Moscow, the Tsar still did not surrender. Napoleon, sent a message to the Tsar, demanding a immediate surrender. However, the Tsar could not surrender because if he did, he would be assassinated by the nobles. Clausewitz replies by saying, Napoleon was unable to grasp the fact that Alexander would not, could not negotiate. The Tsar knew well that he would be disposed and assassinated if he tried so. pg 256, The Campaign of 1812 in Russia\ General Clausewitz said, Napoleon believed if he defeated the Russian Army and occupied Moscow, the Russian leadership will fall apart and the government would call for peace. pg 253, The Campaign of 1812 in Russia Brett James also agreed that Napoleon's occupation had no result. The occupation of Napoleon in Moscow did not have a effect on the government. pg 13, 1812 Napoleon's Defeat in Russia With his battle plan set, Napoleon prepared his troops for the attack on Russia. But, Napoleon did not consider the fierce Russian winter which awaited him. According to Ludwig Wilhelm Gottlob Schlosser, a onlooker, he described the army by saying, The French, down to the lowliest drummer were very fastidious. These poor French devils were not satisfied with less than soup, meat and vegetables, roast, and salad for their midday meal, and there was no sign of their famous frugality. They were completely devoid of the coming winter. pg 13, 1812 Napoleon's Defeat in Russia Napoleon was even warned by General Rapp about the extremities of the oncoming winter in Russia. The natives say we shall have a severe winter, Napoleon retorted scornfully, Bah! You and your natives! We shall see how fine it is. pg 147, 1812 Napoleon's Defeat in Russia Napoleon should have heeded Rapp's words. As the Grand Armee marched toward Moscow, many horses and men were lost in the freezing snow, and for those who remained, their morale and effectiveness was at the nadir. General Clausewitz states his point by saying, With more precaution and better regulations as to subsistence, with more careful consideration of his marches, which would have prevented the unnecessary and enormous accumulation of masses on one and the same road, he would have preserved his army in a more effective condition. pg 255, The Campaign of 1812 in Russia Brett James also shared the same opinion, Napoleon appeared to have made no effort to discover the facts in Russia, or prepare his troops for it. pg 140, 1812 Napoleon's Defeat in Russia As Napoleon and his army was making their way to Moscow, they encountered typhus, colds, and dysentery. Even the mighty Napoleon had caught a mild case of the flu. However, his soldiers had received the brunt of the attack. Captain Thomas- Joesph Aubry relives this ordeal, After this the typhus made appalling inroads in our ranks. We were fourty-three officers in our ward. All of them died, one after the other, and delirious from this dreadful disease, most of them singing, some in Latin, others in German, others again in Italian - and singing psalms, canticles, or the mass. pg 210, 1812 Napoleon's Defeat in Russia General Clausewitz wrote, The bad

Coach Carter Essays

Coach Carter Essays Coach Carter Paper Coach Carter Paper Coach Carter was a great leader and coach, who encouraged is team and pushed them to be the best they could possibly become. Many of the characters are seen in a negative light at the beginning of the film however as the film progresses Coach Carter leadership style show how he influence his students in overcoming adversity and transform them to be become winners on and off the field. Some of the main themes in this film is the importance of leadership, unity, discipline, and education. Leadership Movie Coach Carter (2005) Film Transformational leadership is a process that changes and transform people. It is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals. It includes assessing followers motives, satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings. Transformational leadership involves an exceptional form of influence that moves followers to accomplish more than what is usually expected of them. It is a process that often incorporates charismatic and visionary leadership. (Morehouse Sixth Edition 2013). This relates to Coach Carter because at the start of the film one of his student, Time Cruz was so adamant not to follow the rules of Coach Carter which leads him dropping out the basketball team. However later on within e film o see Cruz wanting to come back to join the team and to prove to Coach Carter that he has changed and will do anything to prove to coach carter to get back on the basketball team. This shows that transformational leadership theory was used as Coach Carter had the power to influence Cruz enough for him to want to change and to become more than just a good basketball player but also academically. Transformational leadership theory is built up from four main factors; idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. Idealized influence it is the emotional component of leadership (Antiskid 2012). Idealized influence describes leaders who act as strong role models for followers. They can be trusted and respected by most people they work with which allows that leader to be trustworthy to make big decisions for who they are currently leading. Inspirational motivation leaders are individuals who communicate high committed to and a part of the shared vision in the organization. Team spirit is enhanced by this type of leadership which will lead to positive attitudes which helps to achieving goals. Intellectual stimulation is where the leader oho encourage innovation and creativity through challenging the normal beliefs or views of a group. An example of this type of leadership is they like to promote critical thinking and problem solving within the individuals they are working with to allow a better outcome on what they are focusing on. Individual consideration is where the leader is very considerate with the individuals they are working with by advising them as well as coaching them. They encourage the individuals to allow them to reach their goals. Effective transformational adhering results in performances that exceed organizational expectations. Figure 9. 3 illustrates the additive effect of transformational leadership because managers must pull together the components to reach performance beyond expectations (Morehouse, 2013). Motivational Leadership Motivation can be defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is what causes us to act. A motivational leader will have the ability to motivate the team and make the team want to behave in a certain way and do certain things as the outcome will give them satisfaction. Coach Carter uses motivational goals, for example he puts a ban on the gym and they have to achieve good grades in school before they are able to play basketball again. Motivational leaders must be committed to the social good of the organization. The social good is a broad term that can refers to the leaders willingness to take on the responsibility of trying to advance the overall human good and value of the organization. Coach Carter has these three aspects of motivation (willingness, dominance, and social good) he display those behavior throughout the movie. Trait Approach to Leadership Trait approach to leadership can be related closely to the personality traits mentioned on the what is leadership page. Original research on Trait theories (Stodgily, 1948; Mann 1 959) and trait approach often started with a list of leadership qualities which were seen as necessary for a successful leadership. This pie chart shows the Key Traits associated with leadership. When research into trait theories was carried out in the sasss it was believed that leadership traits could only be inherited and not taught (Goodwin, 2006). This theory was criticized by the sasss as it was noted that these same leadership traits were shared by a wider group of individuals who were not in leadership roles. Research continued to be carried out on trait approach despite some criticism. Gardner (1989) suggested that one individual with certain leadership qualities that can lead in one situation is able to lead in a different situation too. Again, this was criticized for minimizing the impact of the situation (Sadler 1997 in Doyle and Smith, 2001 ) and for the example of leadership qualities suggests, some were seen as behaviors and skills rather than qualities (Doyle and Smith, 2001). It is difficult to link trait approaches to specific examples of leaders as many leaders have some or all of the traits that are reckon sized. Coach Carter falls into this category. Coach Carter is intelligent he is well educated but he also has previous experience and knowledge of coaching basketball teams. Throughout the film coach carter shows integrity through upholding his believes and values even when doubted by other such as the head teacher, Other staff members, certain team members and even the whole local community. Coach Carter also shows signs of other traits, self-esteem, extroversion, conscientious and open o experience. Therefore it is arguable that Coach Carter leadership style also uses trait approach. These are behaviors and skills rather than qualities therefore it is dependent on how the individual uses these behaviors to determine whether they are an effective leader. Many individuals have these traits however it does not mean that every one of them will be a leader (Morehouse, 2010). Coach carter has these traits and he use them in the way that makes his leadership style successful. Authentic leadership has an explicit moral dimension. Underlying both the racial and theoretical approaches is the idea that authenticity requires leaders to do what is right and good for their followers and society. Authentic leaders understand their own values, place followers needs above their own, and work with followers to align their interests in order to create a greater common good. Morehouse 2013). For example, Coach Carter stops basketball practice because of the teams bad academic performance, one of his player Time Cruz Quits the team for a second time, eventually going back to work for Runny. Late one night, Runny (Times Cousin) is shot and killed on he sidewalk while Cruz is walking back to him after greeting his friends from the team. Cruz ends up at Carters house that night, apologizing for his behavior and begging him to allow him back on the team. So Carter lets Cruz back on the team, saving him from a future like his cousins. The actions Time has done shows that he now realizes that his Actions can heavily result on his future and this is a major sign of change. One of the best scene and speech was Coach Carter addressing to the board and Time Cruz to Coach Carter. [To the people in attendance at the board hearing] You really need to insider the message youre sending this boys by ending the lockout. Its the same message that we as a culture send to our professional athletes; and that is that they are above the law. If these boys cannot honor the Simple rules of a basketball contract, how long do you think it will be before theyre out there breaking the law? Played ball here at Richmond High 30 years ago. It was the same thing then; some of my teammates went to prison, some of them even ended up dead. If you vote to end the lockout, you wont have to terminate me; Ill quit. Coach Ken Carter. By the end of the film the hearted of Time Cruz is now shown in a positive light. Time Cruz speech to Coach Carter as he was walking out the gym. Time decides to tell him what his deepest fear was (throughout the film the Coach has been asking Time what is his deepest fear) Time Cruz replies: Our deepest fear is not that we are inadequate. Our deepest fear is that we are powerful beyond measure. It is our light, not our darkness, that most frightens us. Your playing small does not serve the world. There is nothing enlightened about shrinking so that other people wont feel insecure around you. We are all meant to shine as hillier do. Its not just in some of us; it is in everyone. And as we let our own lights shine, we unconsciously give other people permission to do the same. As we are liberated from our own fear, our presence automatically liberates others. Sir I just want say thank you You saved my life. He phrases a quoted from Marianne Williamson in her book, Return to Love. From Time Cruz point of view since returning back to the team he has left the drug trade for good. At the end of the movie it states that he was successful of getting a scholarship and he attended Humboldt State University where he plays settable as a starting guard. This movie was inspiring and motivational. It show leadership style, leadership traits, and leadership principles. It was enlighten to see a group of teenage misfits are turned around into positive and life affirming men who go on to do great things with their lives despite people constantly telling them that theyre nothing. One of the most important lessons from this movie is that when you start believing in yourself and your team and telling them positive things like you can succeed or as in the movie you can go to college Hat it opens the door on personal growth. For example: Dont let circumstances define the destiny of yourself or your team. In this leadership movie Coach Carters boss, the principle, denies that even half of the boys will graduate from high-school and yet they do and many went onto college. When your own leaders start telling you that success cannot happen, you should feel confident to challenge them respectfully and show with your results that transformation can happen and goals can be met. Secondly, your team will never be perfect, believe in who you have. No one is what you want them to be but leadership is about rising above peoples nakedness and building on what they do have to see them succeed. In conclusion Coach Carter displays a combination of leadership styles in the movie. Transformational leadership is thoroughly demonstrated throughout the movie. Transformational leadership is the ability of a leader to get people to do more than they originally expected to do in support of large scale innovation and change. By inspiring the team, Coach Carter envisioned each players can achieve far more than they could ever imagine. As a team he had made them suffer and triumph together. Carter had a positive influence on en another and most importantly he encouraged everyone to work at their full potential. Not only as basketball players, by maintaining a GAP of 2. 3 or greater, it had set an opportunity for senior players to graduate as well as further their academics and basketball career to a college degree. Challenging the team to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers were few of the many things he was able to accomplish. The study concluded that there are positive benefits of transformational leadership in social work.

Business Ethics And Corporate Responsibility Marketing Essay

Business Ethics And Corporate Responsibility Marketing Essay Describe the basic features that distinguish the three traditional forms of business ownership: sole proprietorships, general partnerships and C corporations. ~Sole proprietorship is a business that is owned and managed by one individual. Earnings of the company are treated as income and debts that arise are personal debts. It is the most common type of business organization in United States. ~General partnership: In this type of business all partners have right to participate in management of the firm and share any profits or losses. There is no limit on number of partners but usually it’s two. ~C corporation is a legal entity, separate and distinct from its owners. It’s owned by stockholders. Its mission and objective are established by board of directors and board of directors is selected by stockholders to protect their interests. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of sole proprietorships and general partnerships. ~Both are easy to form, have tax advantages, and unlimited liability. ~General partnership has a stronger financial base than sole proprietorship. ~On the other hand, general partnership can be destroyed much easier than sole ~proprietorship because of disagreements between partners. ~ Another disadvantage in sole proprietorship is that workload and responsibilities are on one person while in partnership it’s shared. What advantages help explain why virtually all large companies are organized as C corporations? ~Corporations can raise huge amount of financial capital ~It’s easy for stockholders to withdraw from ownership or sell shares of stock ~Stockholders have limited liability. They are not personally liable for the debts of the company. What steps are involved in starting a general corporation? ~Requires filing form called the articles of incorporation, with a specific state agency. ~Pay filling fees and establish corporate bylaws-basic the basic rules governing how a corporation is organized an d how it manages its business. ~Companies also choose corporation friendly states, because not all states are friendly and charge a lot of money. How is a corporation’s board of directors chosen? Explain the role the board plays in a corporation’s management. ~ According to corporate bylaws stockholders elect board of directors that they rely on to manage company and protect their interests. ~Board of directors establishes the corporation’s mission and sets its broad objectives. ~Board of directors then assigns the chief of executive officer and other corporate officers to manage company. Explain how S corporations, statutory closed corporations, and nonprofit corporations differ from C corporations. ~S corporation: IRS does not tax earning separately, can have no more than 100 stockholders, each stockholder have to be U.S. citizen or permanent resident. ~Statutory close corporation: Doesn’t have to elect a board of directors or hold annual stockholders m eetings, number of stockholders are limited to 50, stockholders can’t sell their shares to public without first offering to existing owners, not all states allow this type of corporation. ~Nonprofit corporation: Has members but not stockholders, cannot contribute funds to a political campaign, must keep accurate records, earnings are exempt from federal and state income, make tax deduction for individuals who contribute money or property.

Future work performance of students Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Future work performance of students - Article Example Here, it is assumed that in all but owner- managed organisations the owner or owners (known in agency theory as the "principal") of an organisation must vest authority to an "agent"-corporate management- to act on their behalf. Harrison & Kessels (2004: 25-26). Given this perception, the principal in an organisation feels unable to predict an agent's behaviour in any given situation and so brings into play various measures to do with incentives in other to tie employee's needs to those of their organisation. In economic literature, the significance of information asymmetries, innovation and strategic behaviour has long been recognised. There exists a considerable literature on how incentives affect a variety of management problems and the methodology for analysis of incentive problems most notably the principal agent model (Muller & Turner 2006).Against this background, this paper centers on what motivating factors are more likely to influence students of my university future job performance. In order to be able to conduct an in-depth analysis of the importance, relevance and functions of effective human resource policies, I have chosen to encompass only a specific number of elements, on the role of motivation towards our university student's future performance. There are basically two-research approaches, the deductive approach in which you develop a theory and hypothesis and design a research strategy to test the hypothesis, or the inductive method in which you will collect data and develop theory as a result of your data analysis (Bryman & Bell 2004, Saunders et al 2007). A research method involves collecting data, with specific instrument such as a self-completion questionnaire or a structured interview schedule or where a researcher listens to and watches others (Bryman & Bell 2004). There are however two research methods from which the above examples stem from. The qualitative and quantitative research methods. None of the method is better than the other, as each of the methods becomes efficient and effective once used in the proper context (Bryman & Bell 2004). The proposed research questions were investigated on a convenience random sample of 50 students at the University. The selected University (Our campus) o'ers an

Three Positions on Abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Three Positions on Abortion - Essay Example It does not think that the act of abortion is legitimate under all circumstances. The position considers that the mother and fetus have certain rights. The conflict of rights is created because of the different considerations for the mother, fetus and the society. However, the acceptability of the action depends on the severity of such conditions. For example, if it is feared that there are chances that the fetus will born deformed, moderate position will allow abortion in such cases. The reason behind the acceptance of abortion in this case is that it will cause tremendous pain and suffering to the mother and the fetus itself. The loss or pain cause by giving birth to a child would be greater than the tragedy and loss of abortion. In other words, moderate position on abortion is the rational view of abortion. It requires doing what is best for the mother and the fetus. Hence it is a better alternative to conservative and liberal approaches. The moderate approach strikes a balance be tween liberal and conservative positions. I agree with this position because many a times there are situation when it is necessary to abort the child. People also have a tendency to abuse the abortion. They take it for granted and use it at the cost of rights of the fetus or the child. This harms the sanctity of life. Many people have compared such an act with murder. Since, it has been proven that the fetus gets the life after four months. Unlike liberal approach, the moderate approach will assume that the right of abortion for women should be until four months only. After that abortion should only be allowed if there are severe medical issues, it is feared that the child will be deformed, or in cases of rape and incest. Similarly, the moderate approach is better than conservative approach because it thinks that abortion should not be allowed under any condition. This approach can lead to fatal consequence. For example, if the woman dies in the process of child birth. This would le ad to loss of two lives. Hence, a rational approach in this case would be to allow abortion under certain scenario and let people use the option for the benefit of themselves and the benefit of the entire society. The moderate position on abortion takes into account various ethical frameworks. It takes into account the deontological framework in way that it calls for abortion in cases where the motives of the action are pure. It needs people to weigh the pros and cons of the action before taking the final action. As a result, the motives behind the moderate approach are more often than not pure and hence the deontological framework justifies the decisions taken under deontological framework. Rights-based ethics also justify the moderate position on abortion. Since, a part of women body is involved in the process of child birth, she has a right to abort the child if she want to. If she feels that the entire process of child birth is too painful for her body, or it will cause her stre ss then she can use right based ethics to justify her decision of aborting the fetus. Even consequential ethics allow the parents to abort the fetus. For example, if it is considered that overall standard of living of a family would fall after the birth of another child, the parents can choose to abort the child and this can be justified by using the consequential approach. Similarly, if it is felt that the birth of the child can lead to medical issues for the women or can lead to a deformed child that can cause stress and

The Raw Power of A Streetcar Named Desire Essay -- Streetcar Named Des

The Raw Power of A Streetcar Named Desire      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tennessee Williams's play A Streetcar Named Desire contains more within it's characters, situations, and story than appears on its surface. As in many of Williams's plays, there is much use of symbolism and interesting characters in order to draw in and involve the audience.   The plot of A Streetcar Named Desire alone does not captivate the audience.   It is Williams's brilliant and intriguing characters that make the reader truly understand the play's meaning.   He also presents a continuous flow of raw, realistic moods and events in the play which keeps the reader fascinated in the realistic fantasy Williams has created in A Streetcar Named Desire.   The symbolism, characters, mood, and events of this play collectively form a captivating, thought-provoking piece of literature.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A Streetcar Named Desire produces a very strong reaction.   Even at the beginning of the play, the reader is confronted with extremely obvious symbolism in order to express the idea of the play.   Blanche states that she was told "to take a streetcar named Desire, and then to transfer to one called Cemeteries".   One can not simply read over this statement without assuming Williams is trying to say more than is written.   Later in the play, the reader realizes that statement most likely refers to Blanche's arriving at the place and situation she is now in because of her servitude to her own desires and urges.   What really makes A Streetcar Named Desire such an exceptional literary work is the development of interesting, involving characters.   As the play develops, the audience sees that Blanche is less proper and refined than she ... ...st into a reality which is not his own, yet somehow seems familiar. This realistic fantasy Williams creates with his brilliant use of symbolism, intriguing characters, and involving action in the play causes the reader to connect fully with the setting, characters, conflicts, and emotions within.    BIBLIOGRAPHY    Adler, Thomas P.   A Streetcar Named Desire: The Moth and the Lantern. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990    Kernan, Alvin B.   "Truth and Dramatic Mode in A Streetcar Named Desire, In Modern Critical Views: Tennessee Williams."   Ed. Harold Bloom.   New York: Chealsea House Publishers, 1987    Quirino, Leonard.   "The Cards Indicate a Voyage on A Streetcar Named Desire, In Modern Critical Interpretations: Tennessee Williams's A Streetcar Named Desire."   Ed. Harold Bloom.   New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1988   

Clientelism, Tribalism, and Ethnic Conflict in Africa

In this essay I will firstly examine and break down the components of the question. I will separate and clarify the meaning of Clientelism, Tribalism and Ethnic Conflict and deal with each of these as separate enterties. Although I will argue each of them on a separate basis. I aim also to show the complex interlinked relationships between the three themes, and argue that because of this the central argument of the question is not easily agreed or disagreed with. My main argument however, will be to disagree with the central question and advocate that Clientelism was a part of Africa's tradition long before any notion of modernity and colonial influence was present in the continent. I will provide empirical evidence, which supports the inherent presence of Clientelism, and also show how it has strong links with Tribalism, in both its history and modern perpetuation. Tribalism however is a different matter and I agree with the central statement and advocate that modern African tribalism and notions of ethnicity were mainly a direct result of colonial imposed modernity restructuring. For the final part of my answer I will provide an argument that African ethnic conflict lies somewhere between the two extremes, that it was present in African society before colonial modernity and it was further exacerbated by the restructuring that colonialism brought about. In my conclusion I will further justify my arguments and advocate a thesis for future development in Africa on tribalism, ethnic conflict and clientelism. Whether clientelism, tribalism and ethnic conflict were a product not of tradition but of modernity in Africa and a type of development is a difficult and complex question in many respects, but one to which I have a strong argument. To study this it would be practical to firstly define what I shall mean by modernity and â€Å"the type of development† in relation to the main statement, as it will form the crux of my argument. By modernity and type of development in Africa I will be focusing on colonialism and justifying whether clientelism, tribalism and ethnic conflict were present before the arrival of colonialization or whether they emerged from the new society that restructuring colonial development brought with it. I believe through looking at African society in its modern context and studying empirical data that it is evident to determine whether the three main themes of this essay where present before or a after product. What is not so clear however is the complex linkages between and the contexts they operate in. I advocate for instance that it is impossible to separate out clientelism from tribalism, and that ethnic conflict is closely related to both of these. Due to this in order to justify and construct my argument I must separate out clientelism, tribalism and ethnic conflict and study them individually. Clientelism To determine from what circumstances Clientelism in African emanated it is important to define the term itself and what it means in African society. Clientelism is also known as patron-client relations/politics, and in its modern form is highly evident in African society. This clientelism is an exchange between actors who have unequal balance of power, one being weaker, and the other being stronger. It is the patron who is the more powerful and the client who is normally the weaker of the two. The exchange between client and patron is formed when the more powerful patron offers something, be it scarce resources or protection to the weaker client. This weaker client offers something back in return, perhaps support or other services to the patron who is in a more dominant position. † bound up with important ties of reprocity linking those who are related within networks of vertical relationships. Clientelism can be viewed on both micro and macro levels as a phenomenon of African society (although it is evident elsewhere),and to assess from where this Clientelism originated from it is necessary to see where it is present in modern society. In modern day Africa these patron -client relationships are most visible in the political arena. I argue that clientelism although it is pervasive in African politics did not emerge as a direct result of colonisation, which most people would view as the birthplace of modern African politics and political institutions as a result of the restructuring of African society. Instead I advocate that Clientelism, although present in modern day politics was in place well before the colonial era and was present in tradition and the era before any notion of modernity was in Africa. I believe clientelism was evident in the traditional African way of life. Pre-Colonial African society was in terms stateless. There was no formal state. African society was based around a system of patron-client relationships, which were the fundamental core of society. Where there was no state there was no other system, in a vast continent holding various competing tribes and peoples in order for there to be a ‘society' arbitrating, protecting and trade were all centred around these unequal deals between various networks. â€Å"The power relations of pre-colonial Africa were typically of patrons and clients. ‘Big Men' presided over intricate networks of clientage involving reciprocal but unequal relations with ‘small boys', as well as power over women and children and those held in the diverse forms and degrees of servitude of pawnship and slavery. 2 Patron-client networks as evident today I argue are based around extended family (and later as I will discuss) tribal loyalties evident from traditional African life. â€Å"African communities were pervaded by relations of domination and dependence, based on patriarchal power exercised across differences of genders and generations, lineages and clans, languages and cultures. â€Å"3 The arrival of Colonialism and modernity had utilised these already existing patron-client relationships and used them for their own ends. The colonial administrators sought chief headmen and perpetuated clientelism by supplementing their meagre salaries and earnings they gained from their official positions with monies gained from trade and other bonuses. (Berman) â€Å"Chiefs and headmen were the essential linkage between the colonial state and African societies. This relationship typically took on a patron-client form, and had several important and contradictory consequences. â€Å"4 So I argue rather than colonialism creating these patron client linkages it merely utilised them. I believe that clientelism at it is today stemmed from the traditional African societies. So to reiterate African society pre-colonial era although traditional was not so natural and traditionally uncorrupted to be devoid of the practice of clientelism that we so readily see as corruption today. That is was present and a working framework for society. â€Å"The other runs the risk, in reaction, of idealising the virtues of a pre-colonial era supposedly devoid of corruption, the growth of which is supposed to have been caused by the perversion of the social order induced by the arrival of the colonialist Europeans. â€Å"5 I argue that modernity and the formation of formal political institutions and frameworks of power merely perpetuated Clientelism and provided new avenues for the patron-client relationships based on new networks of power. What had always gone on before merely was allowed to operate in a new arena. African politics became â€Å"politics of the belly†, where individuals used public office for private gain. The scarcity of resources in Africa being as it is, if one person holds an office where he/she controls resources or power politics becomes a way of utilising patron-client networks to distribute these resources and gain support and power. made patron/client relations not only the fundamental mode of access to the state and its resources, but also, as in pre-colonial society, the fundamental relationship between ordinary people and those with wealth or power. † As before in pre-colonial society clientelism formed the basis of a persons power through the number of people he had domination and arrangements over, now in politics a persons political power is based on how many people pledge support through reciprocal client-patron networks in return for favours. Clientelism hasn't been formed it has merely morphed into a new generation of deals. â€Å"Where land was plentiful and populations small, wealth and power were measured in control of people, in having a large following of family and non-kin dependants. â€Å"7 In politics this clientelism has become diverse, not created by modernity but adapted for its use in formal political positions. Peter Ekeh (1975) described this as being the formation in African society of two publics, where Clientelism has been and always is the norm. That the same political actors act in both systems of a Civic public and the Primordial public. The citizen in the Civic public works in the beaurocratic institutions of the state, in a supposedly amoral system. The citizen takes from his position and gives nothing in return. This is through clientelism and a network of contacts where state resources and power can be distributed in this way. However the same person in his Primordial public, largely associated with ethnic tribalism and belonging to an extended family/ community, gives out and gets nothing in return. Due to the kinship of this the actor is expected to do good for his own community, by using his political position. The key idea in Ekeh's case then is that the ‘good man channels part of the largesse of the civic public to the primordial public. ‘ This shows the complex links between the old clientelism networks and what I will argue as the more modern artificial tribal relationships in African society. Tribalism Tribalism in its present form in Africa however is not a traditional aspect of African culture I argue as Clientelism had been, but a product of the development imposed on the region by Colonialism. Colonialism and the social and economic changes it brought with it ‘created' the sense of tribalism and strong ethnic identities that are present in modern Africa. That tribes were not traditionally based but created in a means to gain power, resources and recognition in the process of colonial modernising. â€Å"The accumulating weight of evidence shows that African ethnicity and its relationship to politics is new not old: a response to capitalist modernity shaped by similar forces to those related to the development of ethnic nationalism in Europe since the late nineteenth century. † This is not to say there were not tribes in the pre-colonial era, but I believe what tribes existed there were, not so ethnically divided. That the tribes were various groups of mixed race and language peoples who were in a constant state of flux, without the fixed ethnic boundaries one finds today. â€Å"Pre-colonial political and socio-cultural boundaries were marked by fuzziness and flexibility; and Africans existed within a reality of multiple, overlapping and alternative collective identities. â€Å"9 What created these tribal identities therefore if they were not present in traditional African society was the arrival of colonialism. Europeans were of the assumption that African tribes were the basis of society. That the tribes had neat compact boundaries and consisted of culturally identical peoples. This assumption I argue was the basis for tribal creation, as the missionaries especially and other state institutions sought to formalise and categorise these tribal units. The recording of culture and the teaching to a whole area of a ‘supposedly' local language, which in many cases was merely a local dialect, began to bring differing peoples together. This wiped out some cultural differences and creating false collectives of tribal peoples often not historically related, but brought together by colonial boundaries. â€Å"The ideology and culture of colonialism, especially in the imagining of African societies by colonial officials and European missionaries, provided the dominant cognitive context moulding the invention of tribes and their customs by Africans themselves. â€Å"10 If the colonial rulers and administration could claim links with these tribes then, through working with the ‘traditional' ruling groups in Africa they gained legitimacy in their operations and ruling of the area. By working with these fixed tribes, the colonial rulers could fragment and control the local populace by breaking it down into smaller loyal groups. In reality the creation of tribes made it easier for the colonial beaurocracy to rule. â€Å"Each administrative unit ideally contained a single culturally and linguistically homogenous ‘tribe' in which people continued to live within the indigenous institutions and were subject to ‘tribal discipline' through local structures of authority. â€Å"11 Although this was a key issue in the creation of Africa tribalism however, I believe that the stronger reason for the formation of tribes was for political gain and recognition. Due to this European notion of African tribalism, in order to hold power with the colonial administration actors must be part of a clearly fixed ethnic group. This created political tribalism, which was the creation of ethnicities by elite groups in African society to gain access to resources and to seek the foundations for a conservative modernisation. In short it was the manipulation of tribal ethnic identities by Africans themselves for political and economic gains in the face of colonial changes. † Ethnic collective action', according to Mozaffar, ‘is predominantly a process of strategic political interaction between self-interested actors with divergent interests'. 12 Ethnic Conflict Ethnic Conflict has both strong links with tribalism and clientelism in Africa. I believe its origin is not so easy to pinpoint as it has been for tribalism and patron-client relations but that ethnic conflict is merely a product of the two. It was evident in pre-colonial society and was heightened and exacerbated by the modern formation of tribes in the colonial era as I have previously described. Ethnic Conflict was present in traditional African society. African society had never been egalitarian in nature, and a society in which there are unequal power relations is ultimately to have conflict in its midst. † Pre-colonial societies were thus full of conflict and competition, instability and change. † What I believe was created by the form of colonial development placed on Africa was the increase in ethnic tensions as new tribes and identities were created. Resources in Africa are still scarce and the modern beaurocratic frame work and political distribution of power has led to ethnic conflict becoming more fierce and modern in its use of warfare and state apparatus. The tribal divisions between the Hutus and Tutsis and the ensuing Rwandan war and genocide are examples of this. As the colonial era ‘created' false country borders this conflict now often seeps out between neighbouring countries, comprising of different tribal identities over land and resources. I believe the colonial era did not create tribal conflict but merely change the scale that it is played out upon and provided it with state apparatus, militia, armies that now take conflict into a modern era, on a wider and more devastating scale. Conclusion It is clear to see then that tribalism, ethnic conflict and clientelism, although intricately related all have different origins. I advocate however that they were all evident in some way or form before any type of modernity was present in Africa. Although I believe Clientelism and ethnic conflict were not created by the development in the colonial era they were not solved or prevented by colonial restructuring. They still persist today. Ethic conflict I argue was present before the arrival of the Europeans in Africa on a localised scale as fighting between the complex and varied tribes on the continent. With the arrival of colonialism I believe it was merely aggravated by the adaptation of formal tribes and the struggle in politics for scarce resources, power and recognition. I argue that it has merely adapted and become a more serious problem as the apparatus of state have been used to fight wars etc. The conflict now envelops far larger groups of people and even countries constructed by the colonial boundaries of ethnicity and country. Clientelism is pervasive throughout African politics. It is our normative viewing of clientelism today, as corruption in Africa that I believe has led to some believing it was is not in existence in pre-colonial society but a product of the introduction of formal politics and modernity in Africa. of idealising the virtues of a pre-colonial era supposedly devoid of corruption, the growth of which is supposed to have been caused by the perversion of the social order induced by the arrival of colonialist Europeans. † What I believe we must consider however that we are applying the principles of the old African order rather to a new context of modern development and democratic politics, etc where impartiality is presupposed. This is what makes us view clientelism as a modern phenomenon rather than its rightful place as a traditional form of dealings in African society. This is the opposite with tribalism, where many suppose it as a traditional part of African society. It was this European view of tribalism that thought of it as such, however closer examination reveals it to be a politically dynamic and deliberately constructed phenomenon. It was not a traditional aspect of society that was carried over into colonial modernity but a means by which if African created a concrete identity they could gain power and resources in a system which colonialism brought about.