How does CSR affect competitive advantage Essay Example

How does CSR affect competitive advantage Essay Introduction For many decades, corporate social responsibility (CARS) has been viewed as a waste of resources money, labor, time, etc. which conflicts with the firms responsibility to make profits in order to compensate its shareholders (Friedman, 1970; Henderson, 2001 ; Jensen, 2002; Levity, 1 958; Summary Ninepin, 2004). On the contrary, especially during the last years, many supporters of CARS came up with the argument that CARS provides a company with a series of specific benefits that very often will outweigh the expenditures. Some are even of the opinion that CARS is necessary for equines, both from an economic and a social point of view (Brown Fraser, 2006; Trucker, 1984; Kettle Lee, 2005; Meltzer, 1983; Porter Kramer, 2006). Screech (201 1 ) concludes by writing that the following two related conflicts could be solved by proving that CARS and profit-maximizing interests can go hand in hand: On the one hand, the argument that CARS is Just a waste of resources would be invalidated and on the other hand, CARS expenses could be Justified to the shareholders as compatible with the firms obligations and, thus, legitimate and economically beneficial. Although great amount of literature is being published about the connection of CARS and the financial performance of firms, it still lacks empirical support and is therefore vulnerable to the criticism that this relation is not a grounded fact, but rather wishful thinking by Its proponents (Rollover, Schmidt Runes, 2003; Screech, 2011). Therefore, this article aims at throwing light on the link between CARS and firm performance by assessing how CARS might influence a firms competitive advantage. Specifically, as many companies realize how important it is to attract highly skilled employees as a main component of their competitive advantage (Prefer, 1994; Tech, 1998; Turban Greening, 1997), the focus will be on the link between CARS and human resources. This article will start with a review of previous studies and research in this area, followed by an in depth analysis of relevant and underlying theories that describe how CARS affects competitive advantage via a firms human resources. We will write a custom essay sample on How does CSR affect competitive advantage specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on How does CSR affect competitive advantage specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on How does CSR affect competitive advantage specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Ultimately, this article will give Implications for Important future research and the mall findings will be concluded. Previous Research and Studies Although CARS has emerged as an Inescapable priority for business leaders in every entry (Porter Kramer. 2006), there Is no general agreement about whether CARS does contribute to the financial performance of firms or not. A lot of research has been conducted in order to prove the positive relationship between corporate financial performance (COP) and corporate social performance (SSP). Wood (1991 : 693) defines SSP as a business organizations configuration of principles of social responsibility, processes of social responsiveness, and policies, programs, and observable outcomes as they relate to the firms societal relationships. However, the exults of these studies have been inconclusive at best (Donaldson, 1999; Jones Wicks, 1999; McMillan Siegel, 2001; Roman, Hybrid Eagle, 1999). Other studies tried to find conceptual explanations for the lack or the existence of a relationship between SSP and COP, but could not provide answers (McMillan Siegel, 2001 ; society and business need each other now more than ever before. Companies depend on a healthy society, including health care, education, and equal opportunity, but also good government and property rights. These requirements are essential for productive workforce and will furthermore create an expanding demand for business. Simultaneously, this healthy society is also in the need of successful firms. Apart from creating Jobs and wealth, they are the main innovators that improve the standards and quality of living (Porter Kramer, 2006). Hence, it should be in the interest of every firm to conduct CARS, regardless of the possible relationship between SSP and COP. Firms behaving in a socially responsible manner benefit through the subsequent reputation, another topic with a huge body of literature. The reputation f a firm that is built on its social consciousness will not Just temper criticism by the public in case of a crisis (Porter Kramer, 2006), but will also help building a positive relationship to stakeholders, such as investors, suppliers, bankers, and customers (Bombers Channel, 1990). Again, from a financial perspective, reputation plays an extremely important role. Not only will it facilitate access to capital through the emanating positive relationship to investors, but with respect to SSP, reputation also has a higher correlation with COP than any other variable even corporate environmental performance (Brown Perry, 1994; Rollicks et al. , 2003). The return from reputation is, thus, the key to reaping benefits from SSP (Roberts Dowling, 2002). One way of reaping benefits from corporate reputation is by attracting a high quality workforce (Greening Turban, 2000; Turban Greening, 1997). However, the attraction of good employees is not the only channel through which good reputation through CARS affects a firms human resources, possibly leading to a competitive advantage. Research suggests that it also increases the goodwill of current employees towards their employer, which in turn can improve the companys financial outcomes (Davis, 1973; McGuire, Sundered Schneider, 1988; Haddock Graves, 1997). Furthermore, firms can turn instruments such as sponsoring of sports or cultural events into a competitive advantage by improving the morale of their employees and boosting productivity (Porter Kramer, 2002). Supplementary, it has been proved that scandals in regards to CARS will negatively influence employee morale and, thus, the firms performance (Screech, 2011). During the last decades, undress and thousands of articles about CARS have been published, many of them with a strong focus on financial aspects such as the relationship of SSP and COP. Surprisingly few dealt with the influence of CARS on human resources. Greening Turban (2000: 276) analyzed and confirmed that Job applicants will attempt to interview with firms, and will have a higher probability of accepting a Job offer from firms with positive SSP reputation. However, their study is based on a survey of only 39 students and did not focus on what exactly attracts employees and how these causes can be used to create a competitive advantage. Furthermore, a lot has changed during the last years, not only the importance of but also the ways companies pursue CARS. Therefore, these will be the main aspects in the remainder of this article. Theory and Implications for Future Research This section will introduce the most important theories that are relevant for an analysis of the relationship between CARS and competitive advantage. As this article section will start with an explanation of the importance of a quality workforce. Afterwards, theories will be presented which focus on how CARS can influence prospective (via firms attractiveness) or current employees. Quality Employees as a Source of Competitive Advantage There is a reason why statements like our employees are our strength can be found on the homepages and on promoting materials of many companies nowadays. The attraction of superior human resources and retaining them in the firm can provide firms with a sustained competitive advantage (Load Wilson, 1994; Prefer, 1994; Wright, Ferris, Hillier Karol, 1995). Additionally, especially in fields with labor shortage, such as IT or engineering, the attraction of quality applicants is becoming more and more important for the success of companies Jackson Schuler, 1990; Freeman Gowning, 1990). Those organizations that are able to attract the greater applicant pool of top-quality applicants can better utilize their selection system which results in a potential competitive advantage (Load Wilson, 1994; Turban Greening, 1997). As research suggests that employee attraction to a large extent is based on perceptions of the corporate image, which in turn is influenced by the firms SSP (Bombers Channel, 1990), the explanation is given of why many firms promote e. G. Their environmental or philanthropic programs in brochures for prospective applicants (Poe Courier, 1995). They want to demonstrate how socially responsible they act. That this can be successful is confirmed by the finding of Bauer and Amman- Smith (1996) that firms with a stance towards the natural environment are seen as more attractive firms than those without such a stance. The reason why companies should focus more on their employees is that researchers agree that a quality workforce has become more important than other sources of competitive advantage (Greening Turban, 2000). Previously, the success of firms was often attributed to their access to financial markets, product and process technology, patents, the placement of learning curves and economies of scale, etc. However, scholars have noted that the importance of those sources of success has decreased over time, while the selection and management of high quality employees has become a critical factor to success (Prefer, 1994; Snell, Wounds Wright, 1996). Knowledge-Based Theory Similarly, another body of literature suggests that a firms ability to create, manage and transfer knowledge is the key to its success (Feline Westerly, 2007; Grant, 1996), which also points out the importance of a quality workforce as one key to a nominative advantage. Authors suggest that intelligence, motivation, vision, experience, creativity, analytical abilities and commitment are some of the characteristics of quality employees (Tech, 1998). A firms success in the future depends largely on how well it can capture value from those knowledge assets (Tech, 1998). Hence, in order to succeed, a firm must take advantage of its workforce and be able to manage its knowledge. Although high quality employees can be viewed as a necessary condition for success in a modern knowledge economy, it is not a sufficient one (Greening Turban, 2000). The firm has to be able to develop the knowledge and talent into skills and competencies which are valuable, rare, inimitable by competitors, and unsustainable in order to develop a competitive The role of human resources in developing a firms competitive advantage is consistent with the resource-based theory of the firm. This theory suggests that every organization is simply a collection of unique capabilities and resources providing the foundation for the strategy of the organization and being the primary source of its competitive advantage and profitability (Barney, 1991/ 2011; Grant, 1991; Meyer, 1991). It assumes that firms acquire and develop these unique resources and capabilities over time and emphasizes that resources may not be mobile across companies, or easily imitable by other companies (Grant, 1991). As mentioned above, apart from physical resources, also human resources, such as talented managers or high quality employees, are highly important resources for firms (Barney, 1991; Meyer, 1991) and in a global economy, the skills of an organizations workforce are increasingly critical to the development of sustained competitive advantages (Throw, 1992). Additionally, SSP can be viewed as an organizational resource. Investments in SSP may assist firms in developing new capabilities, resources and competencies that are manifested in a firms structure, culture, technology and human resources (Barney, 1991; Russo Bouts, 1997; Heartfelt, 1984). For instance, SSP can help management to develop better processes, scanning skills, or information systems which will better prepare an organization for turbulences, external changes, or crises (Russo Bouts, 1997). The channels through which a companies SSP can affect these resources, especially the human resources, will be subject of discussion later in this article. Signaling Theory Another theory that may be relevant for understanding how a firms SSP may influence human resources, especially the attraction of quality employees, is the signaling theory. There exists a classical information asymmetry between the applicants and the employer. The applicant does not really know how working conditions, corporate culture, etc. Look like in the companies he or she is applying for. Signaling theory suggests that, due to the incomplete information about the company, applicants interpret all the information they receive as signals about e. G. The working conditions in the organization (Greening Turban, 2000). Organizational attributes, for example, provide prospective employees with information about how it would be like to be part of this organization. For instance, a firms formal social programs or policies towards stakeholders or developing political and social issues may attract applicants by serving as signals of the firms goals and commitment. Likewise, the policy to provide day care facilities or to manage diversity has an influence on organizational attractiveness as an employer, because it signals willingness to attract women and minorities and to treat them in a fair manner Greening Turban, 2000; Williams Bauer, 1994). Potential employees might interpret a companys SSP as a signal about its organizational values and norms. These values and norms affect the applicants perceptions of the working conditions and therefore also the companys attractiveness as an employer. Additionally, according to the person-organization fit theory (Kristin, 1996), it is expected that the prospective Job applicants specific values will influence the extent to which a firms SSP influences that attraction (Greening Turban, 2000: 259). Social Identity Theory influences human resources as well. This theory emphasizes that people classify themselves into specific social categories on the basis of different factors, as for example the organization they work for, and that the fact of being a member in those social categories influences peoples individual self-concept (Dutton, Dickered Hairball, 1994; Turban Greening, 1997). Hence, the self-image of employees is influenced by the reputation and the image of the employer. As mentioned earlier, a firms reputation is affected to a large extent by its corporate social performance. Consequently, social identity theory suggests that employees working for a firm with strong SSP will experience positive outcomes, such as an enhanced self-concept, just by being employed in this socially responsible firm (Greening Turban, 2000). Furthermore, as potential employees might expect to experience this enhanced self- concept, the attractiveness of firms that put a strong focus on acting socially responsible is positively affected as well. Definition of Research Gaps After having presented theories that suggest that the right employees can lead to a sustained competitive advantage and that there is relationship between CARS activities of an organization and its human resources, this article will now focus on issues where more research is needed in order to fully understand these relationships. Generally, there exists an almost inexhaustible amount of literature that analyzes the relationship of a firms SSP and its COP. A far smaller body of literature focuses on the link between SSP and human resources. Most of these articles build up theories and make suggestions, but not that much empirical research has been conducted yet to actually prove these theories or to contradict them. Research suggests that potential applicants are very aware of a companys SSP and that companies with a good CARS rating have a competitive advantage, because hey attract a larger amount of applicants and applicants that are of high quality. However, these studies by Greening and Turban (2000) and Turban and Greening (1997) are based on a survey of 39 students or even Just 34, respectively. Also, it can be assumed that those students were aware of the purpose of the study and, thus, were biased in regards to their answers. A study on a large scale needs to be conducted in order to get valuable results. Additionally, it needs to be conducted in different geographical regions of the world, as CARS plays completely different roles in the various societies. While it, for instance, is of great importance in most Western European or the Nordic countries, this is not necessarily the case in many South American or Asian countries. Furthermore, the ways how organizations pursue CARS has changed or at least become broader during the last years. Partnerships of business firms with non-governmental organizations (Nags) had been unthinkable a few decades ago, but have become an important issue nowadays. Many firms grant their employees a certain amount of days off, so that they can engage in Nags they support. Microsoft, for example, allows its employees to take three days off for this repose every year (Thomson, 2012). How do those CARS activities affect the attractiveness of firms? Which CARS activities affect a firms attractiveness the most? Since scholars argue that a quality workforce is becoming an increasingly important source for competitive advantage, these questions need to be addressed by future research. However, CARS does not Just affect a firms human resources via the employers SSP as well. In the framework of Mitchell, Eagle and Wood (1997), employees are seen as a crucial component to success and as a scarce resource. Therefore, they have power, legitimacy and some urgency, and are thus salient takeovers of the firm. It is a logical consequence that they are affected as well, when a firm aims at multiple stakeholders by pursuing CARS. According to Screech (201 1), the idea is that employees will be much more satisfied, if they feel that the beneficiaries of SSP are they, rather than some other external recipients of charitable contributions. Employee satisfaction, in turn, will help retain the employees and reduce turnover (Labeling Freeman, 2000), or positively influence the organizations operational efficiency (Branch Rodriguez, 2006), which can be the source of a competitive advantage. Future research might analyze how and which SSP strategies affect employee satisfaction or investigate if there are moderators that influence this relationship. Conclusion This article suggests that CARS and a firms human resources are interlinked with each other in many different ways. The analysis indicates that a quality workforce is becoming a crucial factor for gaining a competitive advantage and that quality employees can be attracted by a firms SSP. Furthermore, SSP positively influences the employee satisfaction which in turn might lead to a competitive advantage by boosting productivity and efficiency. However, this article aims at showing up areas in which more research has to be conducted in order to fully grasp the influence of corporate social responsibility on the human resources of firms. Especially, empirical research is needed to confirm the theories that have been proposed until now. But also in regards to the constantly changing ways of how companies pursue CARS, it is important to investigate which of them have the greatest impact on employees and their morale. Only then will it be possible for firms to capture the largest benefit of their CARS activities: the creation of a sustained competitive advantage.

The Brown Wasps Essay Example

The Brown Wasps Essay Example The Brown Wasps As pointed out by Bear (1), The Brown Wasps is a Loren Eiseleys essay which demonstrates how human sense of place and self can be based on the fantasy and false remembrance. He notes that Eiseley, through his writing, depicts humans and animals as primarily clinging to things they are strongly acquitted to and even in most cases they act as if nothing has changed at all. According to him, the Eiseleys essay portrays how humans and animals tend to relate to nature intrinsically based on their belief rather than the reality. This raises philosophical concerns as to why people tend to keep to their fixed images even in the unchanging present times. This paper summarizes and responds to the article The Brown Wasps. Summary and Response to the Article At the beginning of the essay, Eiseley carefully constructs a rumination that illustrated how humans and animals tend to act in a similar manner. Eiseley compares the homeless men who find shelter in train stations with the scenario of the wasp that continuously revisits its hive for accommodation. This is evident in the manner in which both men and wasps die in their special areas. As pointed out by Bear (1), Eiseley depicts homeless men coming to die to the train station benches as similar to the death of wasps in the paper homes. He notes that men sit and cling to benches at the train stations and at times fail to leave the benches even when chased by policemen. Equally, Eiseley notes as dying wasps are lingering around their hives until they are worn out and died. This shows that human beings, just like other animals, have an imaginary home in their minds that acts as their reference point to the actions. Additionally, he uses the wasps and homeless men scenario in the article to denote that all that matters in this world is occupying a given space. Dickson (1) notes that Eiseley in his essay depicts a place as the heart of things that humans and animals engage in. However, the similarity at which Eiseley denotes humans and animals imagination about special place is what raises philosophical issues. According to Dickson (1), Eiseley shows that other living creatures tend to carry these special places within their minds similar to humans. He notes that the repercussive effect of this notion towards animal is whether a cat, dog or a cow on their returning to their homes, see the buildings as anything rather than a place for biological needs. Moreover, Eiseley in his essay denotes human beings and animals as primarily clinging to a given time and place where they have adapted to. As he notes, both the dead and the living revolve endlessly about an episode, an event that has been engulfed by time. Dickson (1) points out that the central memory of place, and the episode of things that happen around us is the pivotal centre around which other events and other memories have been organized at a given time. For instance, Eiseley notes that a slug eating ice cream in abandoned Dixie cup which is its right place and furthers with the act until something changes that is a bit of ice cream left over. The concept of originality tries to exemplify why people tend to lose the reality especially in case of mental illness. This is due to the fact that changes in gene depression normally alter the brain functionality thereby ensuring loss of original home and reality. Therefore, it is important to base our present activities on previous fixed image in order to keep the originality of ourselves which wholly dictates our functionality. On the other hand, Eiseleys essay gives the notion of human beings and animals that try to recreate imaginary structures in order to cling to their original ways. This is evident when Eiseley denotes a group of pigeons who returned to the demolished railway station in order to hopefully recreate their home. He notes that the fact that these pigeons were provided by food by people at the railway station, they had clung to the place as the heart of things that would enhance their existence. By this, Eiseley signified that only the past can be a nail to which our present existence and success can be anchored to. According to Cain (132), the boy in the narrative has never lost the grit about the tree because he could remember some of the past spoken words by his father. She points out that the tree which was planted by the boy sixty years ago had taken roots in his mind and he believed that living under its branches was going to make him prosper. This tree, which represents the family, denotes how old the family life is. It also indicates that we constantly look at it in order to form the basic construction of our memories. Conclusion In conclusion, The Brown Wasps essay has highlighted human minds as based on the past events that dictate their present lives. It shows the need of people to adapt to changing environments that help them to restructure their minds from fixed imagination in order to live in an organized society. Moreover, time and place have been noted as important elements of life.

Health Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Health - Article Example This issue can easily affect all 7 of the areas of health. Because it is a mental and emotional fear, it easily can have negative repercussions on the mental, emotional, and intellectual areas of health. The irrationality of this fear could also have repercussions on my physical, financial, social, and spiritual health. Because I might be afraid of being alone, I may not exercise unless I could do it with a group, which may not always be able to happen. I may have to spend money on helping my condition, which would have an effect on my financial health. My fear of being alone/ of my self could also cause me to try to always be with people, something my friends may not like. It however, could possibly have a positive impact on my spiritual health, as I may turn to the divine to try to help me with my condition. Autophobia, because it is a "phobia", or fear condition, it is hard to find exactly how many people are affected. I was unable to find exact numbers, however one website refereed to it as a "common, although often unspoken" phobia. I have found several different organizations that are involved with helping people deal with this phobia. One is CTRN(Change That's Right Now) Phobia Clinic.

Hearing Imapried Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hearing Imapried - Essay Example ‘Hard of hearing’ is a term referring to a person who has some degree of hearing loss but is able to function in the hearing and speech modalities either with or without the use of assistive listening devices such as hearing aids. ‘Deaf’, on the other hand, is a term used to refer to people who have a greater degree of hearing loss, use sign language as their primary means of communication, and are in some manner affiliated with the Deaf community. Thus, deafness may be viewed as a condition that prevents an individual from receiving sound in all forms. In contrast, a child with hearing loss can generally respond to auditory stimuli, including speech (â€Å"Deafness†, 2004). Section 504 of IDEA states, â€Å"No otherwise qualified individual with disability in the United States †¦ shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance† (â€Å"Exceptional†, 2007). The problem undertaken in ensuring this law is complied with enters when one begins to look at the various characteristics of hearing loss and deafness and attempts to incorporate alternative learning strategies into the classroom are made. People who are deaf or hard of hearing use one of three main approaches to communicate. These include the oral approach, the manual approach and the total approach. The oral approach makes heavy use of speech and reading skills to communicate with others and generally has a tendency to remain close to the familiar. The manual approach uses sign language only as a means of communicating and is generally used by people who are completely deaf or well integrated into the Deaf community. Total communication refers to the use of a combination of the oral and manual approach to communication, including the use of informal gestures and written or spoken words. Certain

U.S. HISTORY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

U.S. HISTORY - Essay Example He went to Paris in 1919 to shape the Treaty of Versailles, the peace treaty which ended the World War 1 (Wikipedia, 2006a). Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961), started his career as a writer. Hemingway’s first important work was ‘The Sun Also Rises’ (1926). Similarly successful was ‘A Farewell to Arms’ (1929). Hemingway used his experiences as a reporter during the civil war in Spain as the background for his most ambitious novel, ‘For Whom the Bell Tolls’ (1940). Among his later works, the most outstanding is the short novel, ‘The Old Man and the Sea’ (1952), for which Ernest Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature (1954) (The Nobel Foundation 1954). Â  Herbert Clark Hoover (1929-1933) was the 31st President of the United States. Within eight months of his induction, the stock market crashed, signifying the beginning of the Great depression, the most severe economic crisis the United States had ever known. The Great Depression was a stern test for Hoover and one that proved difficult to manage. World War I brought Hoover to importance in American politics and thrust him into the global attention (Presidency in History, 2003a). Eleanor Roosevelt was an active First Lady during her husband Franklin D. Roosevelts presidency. She traveled, visiting relief projects, surveying working and living conditions, and then reporting her observations to the President. She became a supporter of the rights and needs of the poor, and of the disadvantaged. Even after President Roosevelts death Mrs. Roosevelt continued public life. She was appointed to the United States Delegation to the United Nations General Assembly. She was chairman of the Human Rights Commission. She was an American representative to the World Federation of the United Nations Associations. Mrs. Roosevelt received many awards for her humanitarian efforts (FDR

Biomechanical Differences: Male and Female Marathon Runner

Biomechanical Differences: Male and Female Marathon Runner More than by brain size or tool-making ability, the human species was set apart from its ancestors by the ability to jog mile after lung-stabbing mile with greater endurance than any other primate. The introductory quotation (Hotz, 2004) simply, yet vividly, expresses the results of a recent study completed by two American scientists, Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman, and released in the journal Nature(2004). Bramble and Lieberman contend that the ability to run long distances was the driving force shaping the modern human anatomy.Hotz’s characterization of early humans as marathon men and women from the tips of their distinctively short toes and long Achilles tendons to the tops of their biomechanically balanced heads (emphasis added) sets the backdrop for this essay—an exploration of the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners. After a few additional historical comments, this essay opens with a presentation of anatomical differences between men and women with specific reference to running then continues with definitions and descriptions of the term marathon, as a form of organized running sport, and definitions for the term biomechanics in preparation for a discussion of how the field of biomechanics is applied to running. With this information as a foundation, the objective and scope will be articulated followed by presentation of previous methods and findings revealed from a search of the literature on the topic of biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners and closely-related topics. These findings will be discussed and conclusions drawn. Finally, recommendations for further research will be presented. To return briefly to the research findings of Bramble, a paleontologist and biomechanics expert, and Lieberman, a physical anthropologist, to continue setting the backdrop for the essay, Bramble states: Running made us human, at least in an anatomical sense. We think running is one of the most transforming events in human history (Chui, 2004). Endurance running is an activity that is reserved for humans in the primate world and not common in other mammals with the exception of dogs, horses and a few others. Bramble and Lieberman contend that running permitted humans to scavenge and hunt for food over significant distances and that the high protein food they secured was instrumental in developing larger brains (Wilford, 2004). To facilitate running, humans developed several traits including large buttocks with strong muscles which connect the femur to the trunk of the body preventing the body from over-balancing with each step. In addition, humans have a lengthy arm-swinging stride and [l]ong ligaments and tendons—including the Achilles tendon—[which] serve as springs that store and release mechanical energy during running.(Hotz, 2004). Bramble’s reference to today’s running in the evolutionary context he and Lieberman established provides an appropriate introduction to the exploration of the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners (Wilford, 2004): Today, endurance running is primarily a form of exercise and recreation, but its roots may be as ancient as the origin of the human genus. The description of anatomical differences between men and women,which is focused on anatomical features that are involved in running,begins with a gender-neutral discussion to establish a foundation for the more gender-specific information. Rossi (2003) emphasizes the complexity of walking, a precursor torunning. He writes that half of the 650 muscles and tendons in thehuman body are involved in what most people consider to be the simpleact of walking. He suggests that, in the evolution of the human body,there were hundreds of adaptations that had to take place,adaptations that required repositioning of everything in the bodyover several million years. Rossi writes: The arms, no longer needed for branch swinging, became shorter, thelegs longer, the pelvis wider, the shoulders narrower, the neck longerand more slender, the spine changed from C-shape to S-shape. Majorchanges were required in the hip, knee and ankle joints. Hundreds ofmuscles, tendons, ligaments and joints gradually shifted in position,size and function. And of course, the new posture and gait requiredimportant changes in the size and position of all the organs of thechest and abdomen. Rossi suggests that some of these changes were extremely significantfrom a biomechanical perspective. For instance, he calls attention tothe blood pumping requirement of the upright human form: Daily in eachindividual, approximately 74,000 quarts of blood must travel through100,000 miles of blood vessels from the brain to the feet and legs in acircular pattern. Rossi emphasizes the human engineering challengethat was required to design a system that would counteract the effectsof gravity in moving blood vertically in this manner. Rossi’s commentsare particularly important in the context of the current discoursebecause they provide some insight into the current state of relevantanatomical features of today’s runners and how those features werederived. The anatomy of humans, unlike that of other living creatures,provides for speed and endurance. The unique characteristics related torunning include (Science in Africa, 2005, citing University of Utah Public Relations, 2004): †¢ Skull features. These features, which include sweating from the scalp and face, cool the blood. †¢ A balanced head. This shape of head with a relatively flat face,small teeth, and short snout moves the center of the mass backwardwhich helps to counter the effects of moving upward and downward duringrunning. †¢ A ligament running from the rear of the skill and neck downward tothe thoracic vertebrae. This feature serves as a shock absorber thataids the arms and shoulders in counterbalancing the head during runningactivity. †¢ Shoulders decoupled from the head and neck. This feature allowsrotation of the body while the head faces forward during running. †¢ A tall body. This feature, which includes a narrow trunk, waistand pelvis, provides for increased skin surface allowing for enhancedbody cooling and permits the upper and lower body segments to moveindependently. †¢ Short forearms. This feature permits the upper body to act as acounterbalance to the lower body during running activity while reducingthe muscle power required for maintaining flexed arms. †¢ Large vertebrae and disks. This feature permits the human back to accepted heavier loads when runners impact the ground. †¢ Large, strong connection between the pelvis and the spine. Thisfeature supports more stability and shock absorbing capacity duringrunning activity. †¢ Large buttocks. This feature, and the muscles that form it,stabilize the body during running activity. The connection of thesemuscles to the femur prevents the body from pitching forward. †¢ Long legs. This feature allows humans to take large strides duringrunning activity. The tendons and ligaments permit the legs to belighter and less muscular thereby requiring a smaller amount of energyto propel them while running. †¢ Large hip, knee, and ankle joint surface areas. These featuresprovide enhanced shock absorption by reducing the impact in any onespecific area. †¢ Arrangement of bones in the foot. This feature provides for a morerigid foot by creating a stable arch, allowing runners to push off in amore efficient manner and to use ligaments located on the bottom of thefeet as springs. †¢ Large heel bone, short toes, and a big toe. These features providefor enhanced shock absorption and increased capacity to push off duringrunning activity. With the running-related anatomical features applicable to allhumans as a foundation, the focus now turns to the differences inanatomical features between men and women, specifically those featuresthat are involved in running activity. Holschen (2004) writes that,until puberty, males and females are equal in terms of strength,aerobic power, heart size, and weight; they also have similar amountsof body fat. Starting at puberty, according to Holschen (2004), male and female sexhormones begin affecting bone and lean body mass, circulation, andmetabolism in different ways. A female typically has a wider pelvis,femoral anteversion (inward twisting of the femur), genu valgum (kneestouch but ankles are separated), and external tibial torsion (feet donot line up in a straight manner because of out-toeing from outwardrotation of the large calf bone). Center of gravity differences betweenmen and women are minimal, correlating more by body type and heightthan with gender. (Atwater, 1985, cited in Holschen, 2004). Whencompared with males, females typically have smaller bones accompaniedby smaller articular surfaces. They also have proportionately shorterlegs with resulting decreased potential force in certain maneuvers.(Holschen, 2004). At puberty, girls gain both fat and lean muscle mass due to theinfluence of female hormones; boys lose body fat and add muscle massdue to the influence of male hormones (Holschen, 2004). Women inadulthood have about ten percent more body fat than do their malecounterparts (Greydanus, D. and Patel, D., 2002, cited in Holschen,2004). The basal metabolic rate is approximately ten percent lower inwomen than in men. The presence of female hormones mandates that womenrely more on fat metabolism at any given exercise level when comparedto men. In addition, glycogen uptake, storage, and use are increased.(Holschen, 2004, citing Bonekat, H. W. et al., 1987; Dombovy, M. L. etal., 1987; Frankovich, R. J. and Lebrun, C. M., 2000; Nicklas, B. J. etal., 1989; Tarnopolsky, L. J., 1990) Cureton and associates (1988,cited in Holschen, 2004) attribute the differences in muscle strengthbetween men and woman to skeletal and cardiac muscular hypertrophy andmuscle mass percentage; they contend that muscle mass in men is fortypercent compared to twenty-three percent in women. Changes in body composition and circulatory capacity beginning atpuberty result in approximately twenty percent highercardio-respiratory capacity in men. Men also have comparatively higheroxygen-carrying capacity, larger heart and lung mass, a higher strokevolume, and higher maximal cardiac output which result in greatereffectiveness in aerobic and anaerobic activities, although trainingcan overcome the inherent differences (Williford, H. N. et al., 1993,cited in Holschen, 2004). The results of the current research point to fundamental anatomicaldifferences between men and woman, differences that largely begin toappear during puberty and which have some bearing on runningcapability. The term running can be defined as [moving] swiftly on foot sothat both feet leave the ground during each stride (American HeritageDictionary of the English Language, 2000). The research by Bramble andLieberman (2004, cited in Nature, 2004), which was presented earlier,seems to indicate that running has been part of human existence sinceits beginnings and, in fact, contributed significantly to developmentof human life today. Humans no longer require running for survival, atleast in their normal affairs; that is, typically, humans do not haveto run from danger or run in pursuit of animals to kill for food. Inmodern times, running has taken on a new form—competition foot racing.This competition racing can be against oneself to achieve one’s ownpersonal best or with others. Racing against others can take manyforms ranging from informal competitions between two young friendsracing against one another on a playground to very formal competitionssuch as those in the quadrennia l Olympics. The more formal runningcompetitions are typically classified by the length of the run: 100,200, 400, 800, 1500, 5000, and 10000 meters as well as marathons(Dollman, 2003). There are many terms that refer to specific forms of foot racing: run,dash, sprint, relay, meet, competitive trial of speed, footrace, andmarathon (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Of these, the termsdash and sprint are typically used interchangeably to describe ashort, fast run or race (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 1988) or ashort, swift movement (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Organizeddashes and sprints are commonly of 50 meters, 100 meters, 200 meters,50 yards, 100 yards, and 200 yards in length (Webster’s New WorldThesaurus, 1997). Marathons are a form of long-distance running, whichare on- and off-the-track competitions of more than 3000 meters (Hlus,1997). Specifically, a marathon is a footrace of 42 kilometers, 195meters (26 miles, 385 yards) run over an open course, or anylong-distance or endurance contest People who compete in marathons arecalled marathoners (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 1998).Physiologically, there is a fundamental difference between a sprint ordash and a marathon. According to Pritchard (1994), A sprinter canexert maximum force throughout the run, but this is not possible forlonger runs, where propulsive force must be reduced to match energyavailability. Historically, marathons are not new events. According to legend, thename marathon is derived from the Greek city, Marathon, to commemoratePheidippides’s run from that city to Athens to announce Greek victoryover the Persians. The marathon was introduced to the Olympics in 1896and today’s official distance was established in 1908. (Hlus, 1997; TheColumbia Encyclopedia, 2005) Today, in addition to marathon races inthe Olympics, many cities throughout the world serve as sites forannual or other periodic marathons (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2005). A new form of marathon race has recently taken form—the ultramarathon,which is any organized footrace extending beyond the standard marathonrunning distance of 42 kilometers, 195 meters†¦[they] typically begin at 50 kilometers and extend to enormous distances (Blaikie, n. d.).Standard distances for ultramarathons are 50 and 100 kilometers and 50and 100 miles (Meyers, 2002) with the longest certified race being theSri Chinmoy, a 2092 kilometer race held annually in New York (Blaikie,n. d.). The research produced numerous and varied definitions for the termbiomechanics. The following are representative of the findings: †¢ The study of the mechanics of a living body, especially of theforces exerted by muscles and gravity on the skeletal structure. (TheAmerican Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000). †¢ [The] application of mechanical engineering principles andtechniques in the field of medicine and surgery, studying naturalstructures to improve those produced by humans (The HutchinsonEncyclopedia, 2003). †¢ [A] science examining the forces acting upon and within a biologicalstructure, and the effects produced by those forces (The University ofCalgary, n. d.). †¢ [T]he science that deals with forces and their effects, applied to biological systems (Freivalds, 2004). †¢ [T]he application of the principles and techniques of mechanics to the human body in motion (Snowden, 2001). †¢ Biomechanics is a specific field which evaluates the motion of aliving organism†¦and the actions of forces on that organism†¦acombination of several different areas of study [including] anatomy andphysiology, kinematics (the study of motion without regard to itscauses), kinesiology (the study of human movement) and kinetics (thestudy of forces acting on a system) (National Endurance SportsTrainers Association, 2005). In furnishing a definition for biomechanics, the Quintic ConsultancyLtd. (2005) provides some additional insight into the origin anddetails of the term, stating that the name is derived from the Greekbios meaning life and mekhaniki meaning mechanics, adding that theseindividual terms are combined to mean the mechanics of life forms.The biomechanics discipline includes research into various life formsincluding plants, insects, reptiles, birds, fish, humans, and others.Within the human specialty, topics include mechanics of bone, tooth,muscle, tendon, ligament, cartilage, skin, prostheses, blood flow, airflow, eye movement, joint movement [and] whole body movement (TheQuintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005). Historically, according to Knudson (2003), the study of humanbiomechanics has alternated between emphasizing each of its twocomponents—the biological and the mechanical. Atwater (1980, cited inKnudson, 2003) claims that, during the first half of the twentiethcentury, scholars emphasized medicine and anatomy under the termkinesiology. The distinct field of biomechanics was born from the workof biomechanists in the 1960s and 1970s. From that point the fieldbegan to emphasize mechanics over biology. Today, the competing forcesto move the discipline either toward a biological emphasis or toward amechanical emphasis continue (Knudson, 2003). The field of biomechanics, already narrowed in a previous sectionfrom consideration of all life forms to only humans for the purpose ofthis essay, can be focused even further to a sub-field called sportsbiomechanics (The Quintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005): Sports biomechanics uses the scientific methods of mechanics tostudy the effects of various forces on the sports performer. It isconcerned, in particular, with the forces that act on the humanneuromusculoskeletal system, velocities, accelerations, torque,momentum, and inertia. It also considers aspects of the behavior ofsports implements, footwear and surfaces where these affect athleticperformance or injury prevention. Sports biomechanics can be divided upinto two sections: performance improvement [and] injury prevention. The Australian Sports Commission (n. d.) furnishes additionaldescriptive information on the application of biomechanics to sports,using a term the Commission calls applied sports biomechanics whichincorporates techniques from physics, human anatomy, mathematics,computing and engineering to analyse technique to prevent injury andimprove performance. The Commission’s division of sports biomechanicsinto two categories—performance improvement and injuryprevention—echoes the classifications offered by The QuinticConsultancy Ltd. Williams (2003) describes how biomechanics can help runnerperformance, specifically that of the marathoner. Leading into hisrecommendations, he describes how marathon runners use a simplebiomechanical strategy known as drafting off another runner whenrunning into the wind to reduce the adverse effects of air resistanceand reduce oxygen consumption for the latter part of the race. Hewrites: The goal of the sport biomechanist is to improve movement efficiency,mainly by maximizing propulsive forces and minimizing resistive forces,and thus provide the athlete with a mechanical edge. Using high-speedcinematography, the biomechanist can analyze a runner’s form and detectproblems in running form that may be inefficient, such as overstriding,and that may waste energy. Although most elite and experiencedmarathoners have developed efficient running styles, even a smallimprovement in running efficiency may make a significant differenceover the duration of a marathon. In addition to the strategy of drafting off another runner,Williams offers several other biomechanical strategies includingselecting the proper sportswear (i.e. uniform and shoes) and optimizingbody weight and composition. Thus far the topics of anatomical differences between men and womenwith specific reference to running; definitions and descriptions of theterms marathon (as an organized, competitive form of running) andbiomechanics; and the application of biomechanics to running have beenpresented and discussed. With this as a foundation, the focus of thediscourse now turns to the topic of biomechanical differences betweenmale and female marathon runners and closely-related topics. The objective of this portion of the essay will be to explore thebiomechanical differences between male and female marathon runnersthrough a review and analysis of selected literature on the topic andrelated issues. The scope of the literature review will include marathon running withspecific reference to available information on the differences betweenmales and females. Although running of shorter distances (e.g. sprintsand dashes) and longer distances (e.g. ultramarathons) as well as othersports activities are excluded from the specific scope of this essay,references will be made to these activities when they related tomarathon running. Performance improvement and injury prevention werementioned as the two primary areas addressed by applied sportsbiomechanics. Gender-specific issues in each of these areas will beexplored briefly as well. REVIEW OF EXISTING RESEARCH ON METHODS AND FINDINGS One researcher who has studied gender differences in enduranceperformance, including marathon running, is Stephen Seiler (1996) ofThe Institute for Sport, Agder College in Kristianstad, Norway. Hewrites: Some years ago it was proposed by some that women wouldactually perform better [than men] at ultra-endurance type activities.This theory has been disproved in the laboratory and in practice. Aslong as women are women, I don’t think they will surpass men, statesNorways perennial marathon winner Grete Waitz (quoted in Holden,2004). The anatomical differences between females and their malecounterparts, specifically those that affect running, were presented inthe introduction. Now an attempt will be made to show that the generalanatomical differences between men and women extend to biomechanicaldifferences that affect marathon running performance and injury. Holschen (2004) writes that [T]he female athlete remains less wellunderstood and less well studied compared with male athletes,especially in the areas of performance factors, repetitive stress, andacute injuries. She continues: Logical reasons for this include: (a)a limited two-generation span of the high-profile elite female; (b)fewer females involved in coaching, research, and sports medicine; and(c) limited areas of female youth sports historically (gymnastics,swimming, dance). The reality of Holschen’s findings proved to be truein the current research activity. There were remarkably few availablesources on the biomechanics involved in women’s marathon running. Mostof the research either applied to males or did not identify the gender.Results from a review of selected research literature will be presentedin this section beginning with gender-differentiated research resultson running performance. Following this, results of research into thetwo applied sports biomechan ics specialties will be presented with afocus on studies concerning footwear and injuries. Holden (2004) writes about performance in running with specialattention to female runners. She quotes physiologist Henrik Larsen ofthe Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre in explaining women’s marathonperformance vis-à  -vis men: Women had not developed long distance;that’s why the improvement is much greater on the marathon. Larsen,who seems to attribute the performance improvements of femalemarathoners to focused training instead of anatomic factors, claimsthat [w]e don’t see any higher oxidative capacity in women. Holdenalso offers comments by exercise physiologist Timothy Noakes of theUniversity of Cape Town, South Africa who agrees with Larsen’sassessment: A smaller body frame gives women an edge on endurance†¦butmen can run 10% faster even when the difference in body size iscontrolled for. Stephen Seiler (1996), who was quoted at the start of this sectionstating that the proposal that women could perform better inultra-endurance activities has been disproved, confirms that there aresome physiological differences between the sexes that impactperformance in females independent of age. He notes that there is aten percent difference in marathon times between men and women, addingthat this difference is the same across the distance runningperformance spectrum. He attributes this difference, not to adifference in training, but to physiological differences. He studiedmaximal oxygen consumption, the lactate threshold, and efficiency toanalyze the differences between men and women as these factors mightaffect long-distance running performance: †¢ Maximal Oxygen Consumption. There is a 43 percent differencebetween men and women with men possessing a VO2 max (oxygen-deliveringcapacity measure) of 3.5 liters per minute and women with a capacity of2.0 liters per minute. Seiler attributes this in part to male size; menare larger. But, even when size is factored in, male oxygen consumptioncapacity is still fifteen to twenty percent higher. Males have agreater capacity to deliver oxygen to their muscles and organs. †¢ The Lactate Threshold. This is the point at which lactic acidbegins to accumulate at higher than normal levels in the blood streamindicating an exercise intensity boundary at which the level ofintensity can be maintained over a long period and that which willresult in quick fatigue. Seiler does not believe that lactatethresholds are different for men and women as a percentage of their VO2max. †¢ Efficiency. After finding conflicting information comparing theefficiency of males and females—revealing that females are lessefficient, more efficient, or the same as males in terms ofefficiency—Seiler believes that differences in efficiency do notaccount for the differences in endurance performance. Seiler concludes with his determination that the ten percentperformance difference between men and women in endurance running canbe attributed to the first of the three physiological factors hestudied—maximal oxygen consumption. Another researcher who explored gender differences in athletics,and especially in endurance events, is Dollman (2003). Citing Shepard(2000), Dollman writes that there is consistent evidence, based onobservations, that males possess larger measures of the following(quoted): †¢ Heart volume, even when corrected for stature. †¢ Haematocrit, which gives males a 13 percent greater oxygen-carrying capacity than females. †¢ Plasma volume. †¢ Total muscle mass, which means that females perform the sameabsolute task at a higher percentage of maximum voluntary contraction,with concomitant vascular impedance limiting cardiac ejection and peakcardiac output. In addition, male skeletal muscles may have a higher succinatedehydrogenase (an integral membrane protein) concentration (Dollman,2003, citing Costill, et al., 1987). Males may produce bettermechanical efficiency during running (Dollman, 2003, citing Miura,1997) although this is arguable as it may be rooted in cultural origins(Dollman, 2003, citing Shepard, 2000). Now attention will turn briefly to a review of selected researchinto the two primary application areas addressed by applied sportsbiomechanics: running performance and injuries. Regarding performance,footwear will be discussed followed by a presentation of selectedfindings on research into injuries. Gender issues will be introduced. Lipsky (2001, citing Hennig, 2001) presented research findings ongender-specific requirements for athletic footwear designed forrunning. The research experiment involved fifteen women and seventeenmen of the same body weights, heights, and ages. Each subject wore thesame shoe size and each tested five types of shoes which included threestyles of men’s shoes and two styles for women. Using Kistler forceplatforms at a set velocity, ground force reactions, tibialacceleration, angular foot motion, and plantar pressures at eightstrategic locations on the foot were measured. According to Lipsky, theexperiment revealed that none of the variables demonstrated asignificant interaction among gender and footwear type meaning, Lipskycontends, that women had the same biomechanical dilemmas in men’sshoes as they did in their own footwear. Despite similarity in thetest subjects’ weight and other factors, men exhibited higher pressurerates in all regions of the foot. Men had sig nificantly higher heelloads, but less midfoot loads, indicating that the arches of women donot support the middle of their feet. According to Lipsky, theseresults support the conclusions that women have a stronger collapse ofthe longitudinal arch†¦during weight bearing and have an increasedtendency of pronation and the smaller amount of pressure to theground. The recommendation from this study is that women should selectrunning shoes that protect against overpronation. This, according toLipsky, will help prevent knee injuries. Bartold (2004) adds to the literature on the differences inrequirements for athletic shoes for men and women. He claims thatrunning footwear is largely designed and manufactured for malerunners, making little recognition that women have significant injuryissues compared to men. Although Bartold acknowledges that reasons forinjuries are not scientifically established, he indicates thatproposals have been made that known differences in structure maypredispose female athletes to differences in running mechanics, andthese differences may lead to specific injuries, continuing by statingthat [a]necdotally, we have excellent evidence [that] the particularbiomechanics of female athletes and the way they run predisposes themto specific injury patterns. With regard to injuries, Parfit (1994) compared running injuries ofmiddle distance runners and marathon runners, concluding that thelatter incur more injuries when compared to the former (approximatelyeighty-two percent for middle distance runners compared to ninety-sevenpercent for marathoners). Acknowledging validity questions due to smallrunner populations studied and lack of injury definitions, Parfit foundthat whilst marathon runners suffered from back problems and hipailments, middle distance runners were more susceptible to kneeproblems, stress fractures, and shin splints. Certain types of knee, shoulder and back injuries are more commonin females and can in part be attributed to differences in body shapeand biomechanics, reports Glasgow, Scotland’s Daily Record (2004).Taunton et al. (2002) found that there were significant differencesbetween running injuries incurred by men and women. According to thisstudy, knee injuries seemed to be the most common injury in both sexeswith men experiencing higher incidences of the following injuries (thefirst percentage shown in parenthesis is for men; the second forwomen): †¢ plantar fasciitis, an injury to the fascia connective tissue on the bottom of the foot (54%/46%); †¢ meniscal injury, a condition in the knee cartilage that acts ascushion between the thigh bone (femur) and shin bone (tibia) (69%/31%); †¢ patellar tendinopathy, a rupture in the tendon that connects the kneecap to the tibia (57%/43%); †¢ Achilles tendinopathy, tendon pain or dysfunction in the muscle that connects the calf to the heel of the foot (58%/42%); †¢ gastrocnemius injury, a condition in the largest, most prominentmuscle in the calf which allows for extending the foot and bending theknee (70%/30%); †¢ adductor injury, a condition, such as a tear, in the muscle in the inner thigh (68%/32%); and †¢ osteoarthritis of the knee, a degenerative joint diseasecharacterized by breakdown of the articular cartilage in the joint(71%/29%). The study by Taunton et al. (2002) revealed that women experiencedhigher incidences of the following running injuries (the firstpercentage shown in parenthesis is for women; the second for men): †¢ PFPS, or patellofemoral pain syndrome, a pain behind the kneesometimes known as runner’s knee (62%/32%, does not add to 100%); †¢ ITBFS, or iliotibial band friction syndrome, a conditioncharacterized by injury to the thick band of fibrous tissue that runsdown the outside of the leg beginning at the hip and extending to theouter side of the shin bone just below the knee joint (62%/32%, doesnot ad

The Pessimistic W. B. Yeats’ in An Irish Airman Foresees His Death Essa

The Pessimistic W. B. Yeats’ in An Irish Airman Foresees His Death   Ã‚  Ã‚   There are countless manners in which a person can mourn the death of another.   Some become engulfed in a state of rage, while others may feel a calm, quiet grief or pity.   Some place blame on others for the loss while trying to discover a reason for death.   Others may roll several emotions into one large mourning process that includes several stages.   In â€Å"An Irish Airman Foresees His Death,† W. B. Yeats grieves the death of Major Robert Gregory, son of Lady Gregory, by providing the narrator with an overwhelming sense of apathy toward life.   The poem provides a variety of emotions that counter each other to produce a balance that is uniquely pessimistic.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The first-person narrator, presumably the voice of Robert Gregory, allows the reader to connect more easily with the thoughts of Yeats.   If the poem were written in the third person, the personal emotions would have been lost.   Illustrating a death in the voice of the dead adds sorrow and truth to the work, as an outside narrator would seem more distant from the feelings involved.   Yeats may have chosen to express his words through the narrator’s voice as a tribute to Robert Gregory, or because of his friendship with Lady Gregory—or simply because doing so brought him closer to the emotions of the situation in general.   Ã‚  Ã‚   In the final three lines of the poem, the narrator gives the sense that, because of death, there is little value in life.   He says that â€Å"the years to come seemed waste of breath, / a waste of breath the years behind† (14-15).   Such thoughts suggest existentialism, which provides a sense of the lack of meaning or purpose in living—that we simply â€Å"exist.†Ã‚   Yet the opening lines... ... when going into battle, and, ultimately, death (11).   This is not to say he feels delight in dying, but that some sense of delight in going to war him brought him there, via combat.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Taken as a whole, â€Å"An Irish Airman Foresees His Death† is a simple poem about a man dying.   Its intricacies lie in the juggling act performed by the narrator that leads to a pessimistic, balanced view of a soldier’s death.   When each line is considered carefully, the work becomes more and more complicated.   Several emotions are contrasted along the way—possibly an attempt by Yeats to capture the multitude of feelings that must run through the mind of someone dying.    Works Cited Yeats, William Butler.   â€Å"An Irish Airman Foresees His Death.†Ã‚   The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry.   Ed. Richard Ellmann and Robert O’Clair.   New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.   154-155.